Land and Climate.

than 20 miles (32 kilometers) off the coast of India. Covering

25,332 square miles (65,610 square kilometers), it is slightly

larger than West Virginia. About 32 percent of the land is forested

(down from 80 percent due to deforestation). The north

and east are flat and require irrigation to cultivate rice. Ancient

hydro-engineering techniques are still in use and are admired

even by the modern engineers currently expanding the irrigation

system. Sri Lanka's south-central region is mountainous.

Two peaks (Mount Pidurutagala and World's End Peak) are

located near the center of the island. Tea, rubber, and coconut

plantations dominate the central mountains, although terraced

rice paddies are not uncommon. Sri Lanka has a tropical climate;

temperatures average 80

areas are cooler but also receive more rain than lowland

regions. Seasonal monsoons affect the island.

but little is known about their history. Around 500 B.C.,

an Indo-Aryan group led by Prince Vijaya migrated to Sri

Lanka and formed a small kingdom. The present-day Sinhalese

descended from this group. In 307 B.C., the Indian prince

Mahinda, son of the great Buddhist king Asoka, introduced

Buddhism to the Sinhalese. While Buddhism later floundered

in India, it remained strong in Sri Lanka. Hindu Tamils also

came to the island at an early date and have kept some cultural

and religious ties with the state of Tamil Nadu in India. A second

Tamil migration occurred in the 19th century when the

British brought them from India to work on tea plantations.

Sri Lanka was well-known to other nations throughout history,

including the Romans and early Arabs (who called the

island Serendip). Coastal areas came to be dominated by various

European powers, including the Portuguese (16th century),

Dutch (17th century), and British (beginning in 1796).

Inland areas remained autonomous until the 19th century. In

1815, the British won control of the entire island by defeating

the last native ruler, the King of Kandy. Britain then established

the island as the Crown Colony of Ceylon.

The island peacefully obtained independence from Britain

in 1948. The nation has held successive free elections since

that time. A 1971 Maoist uprising, which was forcibly suppressed,

helped initiate a new constitution that changed the

name of the country from Ceylon to Sri Lanka ("resplendent

island") and introduced limited socialist measures such as

industry nationalization.

Another constitution in 1978 declared the country a democratic

socialist republic and created a strong presidency. About

the same time, ethnic Tamil factions seeking an independent

Tamil state (

insurgency against the government. In the 1980s, Tamil

clashes with ethnic Sinhalese led to thousands of deaths. At

the same time, Sinhalese Maoists again attempted to overthrow

the government at the cost of some 60,000 lives.

Violence peaked in 1987. The government granted the Tamil

language official status, implemented other reforms, and

accepted India's offer to send troops into Tamil areas to establish

peace. Although the separatists had originally agreed to

turn their arms over to the Indian forces in exchange for autonomy,

they instead began fighting the Indian troops. By 1988,

the Sinhalese were violently protesting the presence of the

Indians, and a new government under President Ranasinghe

Premadasa negotiated the withdrawal of Indian troops in 1990.

Premadasa's actions won the short-term cooperation of

Tamil guerrillas, who halted militant activities to participate in

elections. Moderates gained several seats in the national Parliament.

However, fighting broke out again, and entire villages

were massacred by opposing ethnic groups. By the end of

1991, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) had taken

control of many areas north of Vavuniya, including Jaffna. In

1993, Tiger terrorists assassinated Premadasa, and his United

National Party (UNP) lost subsequent elections in 1994.

Heading a leftist coalition called the People's Alliance (PA)

was Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga of the Sri Lanka

Freedom Party. Elected president on a platform of bringing

peace to the country, she immediately opened talks with the

LTTE. Hopes for peace were high until 1995, when negotiations

collapsed and fighting erupted once more. In a massive

offensive, government troops recaptured many parts of the

Jaffna peninsula, and the president offered a peace proposal to

grant limited autonomy to Tamils and revise the constitution.

By 1997, however, war still raged and the government

increased military spending to counter rebel advances.

In the 1998 local council elections in the north, former Tamil

rebels gained majorities in most areas. Despite this step toward

greater Tamil autonomy, the LTTE continued its war and sponsored

deadly terrorist attacks in Colombo. In 1998, after the

deaths of two elected officials, Sri Lanka's military took over

because new civilian elections could not be held safely. A

Tiger offensive retook the Jaffna peninsula and other areas,

forcing the government to withdraw. Negotiations in February

2002 resulted in a cease-fire. Although the cease-fire has

largely held, peace talks broke down in April 2003, making the

prospect of lasting peace even more remote.

annually at 0.83 percent. Colombo, the capital and largest city,

has two million inhabitants. Jaffna has a population of about

500,000. The ethnic Sinhalese constitute 74 percent of the population

and are concentrated in the southwest. The Tamils are

divided into two groups: the Ceylon Tamils (12 percent),

whose ancestors lived on the island for centuries, and the

Indian Tamils (6 percent), whose ancestors were imported during

the British colonial era. About 300,000 Tamils live outside

of Sri Lanka; many are refugees either in India or the West.

Tamils live in the north, east, and south-central areas. Moors

(locally called Muslims) comprise 7 percent of the population.

Malays, Burghers, and Veddahs constitute the other 1 percent.

Burghers are descendants of Dutch colonists, and Veddahs are

a remnant of the island's original inhabitants.

languages in Sri Lanka, but Sinhala is the primary official language.

It is an Indo-European language with roots in Sanskrit

and Pali. Its written form is more formal than the spoken version.

Tamil belongs to the Dravidian group of languages.

About 10 percent of the population speaks English, the primary

language of business.

prince Mahinda, Sri Lanka has been a stronghold of Theravada

Buddhism, the more conservative branch of the religion. It is

practiced by nearly 70 percent of the population, primarily

among the Sinhalese. Although freedom of worship is guaranteed

by the constitution, Buddhism has special status. About

15 percent of Sri Lankans (mostly Tamils) are Hindus. Many

Buddhists also honor various Hindu deities. Tamil worship

centers on the Hindu god Shiva, but many gods exist in the

hierarchy, each having a specific purpose. For instance,

women pray to Paththini for health and fertility; business professionals

seek the blessings of Kataragama (or Skanda); and

students can receive help with their studies from Saraswathi or

Ganesh. Muslims, who comprise 7 percent of the population,

are almost entirely Moors. Eight percent of Sri Lankans are

Christians.

open attitudes. They value their ethnic and religious

identity, loyalty to one's group, and respect for others. Ethnic

divisions run deep, and few people socialize outside of their

respective groups. Tamils resent Sinhalese domination, and

many still distrust official attempts to broaden their autonomy.

The two greatest values in society are the family and education.

Family members help one another and are close-knit. Parents

will sacrifice or work all their lives to provide their children

with as much education as possible. Nearly all young

people desire a good education. Teachers and persons with a

university degree are highly respected in society. Material

wealth is also desired, and people are willing to work hard to

obtain it. The wealthy, especially those who have become successful

in private business, are respected, but in a different way

than educated people are. In other words, family and education

are still more important than money.

The traditional caste system that once dominated society is

fading in public life. Most Sri Lankans do not discuss it, and

being from a lower caste usually does not limit one's economic

or political mobility. However, since one's surname gives indication

of caste, everyone is aware of his or her place within the

system, and that awareness does play a role in social interaction.

That is, people still marry and associate with others of the

same caste. For religious ceremonies, certain castes perform

certain functions.

appearance; it is rare to see a person not wearing clean and

pressed clothes when away from home. Although the youth

and people in cities wear Western-style clothing, traditional

forms of dress remain popular. Women may wear a tight blouse

and a